Lady Margaret Hall Library: Science, Religion and the Space In-Between

Francis Bacon, Of the Advancement and Proficience of Learning of the Partitions of Sciences (Oxford, 1640)

In 1605, English philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon (1561–1626) published Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human, marking the beginning of his “massive plan for the reorganisation of scientific method”. Over the next twenty years he greatly expanded and reworked his ideas in De Augmentis Scientiarum, appearing first in Latin in 1623 and then in this first edition of the English translation.

This work is concerned primarily with the classification of philosophy and the sciences, wherein Bacon develops his influential view of the relation between science and theology. He distinguishes between knowledge by divine revelation and knowledge by the senses, and divides the latter into natural theology, natural philosophy, and the sciences of man.

The engraved allegorical title page (modified from its original appearance in Bacon’s Instauratio Magna of 1620) shows a ship in full sail passing from the old world into the new; the text underneath the ship reads: “Many will pass through the difficulty of knowledge”.  The two plinths on either side signify the separate spheres of natural sciences and philosophy, while the obelisks are marked as Oxford (‘Oxonium’) and Cambridge (‘Cantabrigia’) to signify the two universities. The owls at the foot of the plinths signify Athena, the Greek goddess of knowledge and wisdom. The globes at the top of the page represent the ‘visible world’ and the ‘intellectual world’, connected by their clasping hands, and the caption reads: “They are united by reason and experience”.

Donated by Elizabeth Mackenzie (LMH 1941-47, Fellow 1951-88, Vice-Principal 1981-88).

Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (London, 1871)

This first edition of The Descent of Man by English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) builds on Darwin’s previous work on evolutionary theory by applying its mechanisms to human evolution. In arguing this, Darwin proposes two central paradigms: that humans are animals, and that humans are all one race – the second of these being at odds with Darwin’s personal belief in the justness of a hierarchy of races.

The Descent of Man also details Darwin’s theory of sexual selection, a form of biological adaptation similar to natural selection, as well as evolutionary psychology, evolutionary ethics, evolutionary musicology, and the relevance of the evolutionary theory to society.

The book proved to be very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views were received. He remarked that “everybody is talking about it without being shocked”, hypothesising that this demonstrated “proof of the increasing liberality of England”.

Isaac Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematics (Geneva, 1760)

Isaac Newton’s (1642–1727) Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematics, or Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, is considered one of the most important works in the history of science, forever changing the fields of physics and astronomy. The publication of the Principia in 1687 represents the culmination of the Scientific Revolution, the end of which marked the beginning of the Age of Enlightenment in Europe.

Newton’s seminal work lays out the foundations for the principle of universal gravitation. In demonstrating the impact of gravitational forces on every mass in the universe, Newton rendered, for the first time in history, all of existence explainable by a mathematical law. A purely mathematical book, the Principia contains no theorising or speculation – only a succession of assertions supported by rigorous mathematic and experimental evidence.

The Principia also contains Newton’s three laws of motion – physical laws which describe the relationship between the motion of an object and the forces acting on it – which still form the basic principles of modern physics. However, limitations to Newton's laws have since been discovered, and new theories are necessary when considering objects which move at very high speeds (special relativity), are very massive (general relativity), or are very small (quantum mechanics).

Donated by Alex Whitson.

John Wilkins, A Discovery of a New World, or a Discourse Tending to prove, that ‘tis Probable there may be another Habitable World in the Moon (London, 1684)

John Wilkins (1614–1672) was a theologian, bishop, and natural philosopher who was active in the political, religious and scientific life of England in the mid-17^th century. The Discovery of a New World actually contains two books, That the Moon May be a World (1638) and A Discourse Concerning a New Planet, tending to prove That ‘tis probable our Earth is one of the Planets (1640).

Both quickly became popular and influential books which defended theories about the nature of the Earth and solar system put forward by the likes of Johannes Kepler and Galileo. Wilkins uses observation, scripture, and the writings of ancient and modern scholars as evidence in support of his theories. He sets out fourteen ‘propositions’ in which he defines the character of the Moon, explains how and why he believes it to be inhabited, and describes possible methods by which humans might one day reach the Moon. He also addresses many practical concerns inherent in space travel, such as the impact of gravity, the coldness and thinness of the air, and the practicalities of managing drinking water, food, luggage and rest. He suggests the use of a type of flying chariot in the shape of a bird as a spacecraft.

Wilkins takes pains to encourage the reader to keep an open mind to his theories, explaining that many seemingly ridiculous ideas may one day be proven accurate. He emphasises that

“nothwithstanding all these seeming impossibilities, tis likely enough, that there may be a meanes invented of journeying to the Moone; And how happy shall they be, that are first successful in this attempt”.

Donated by Katherine Briggs (LMH 1918-22).

Francis Bacon, Of the Advancement and Proficience of Learning of the Partitions of Sciences (Oxford, 1640)

In 1605, English philosopher and statesman Francis Bacon (1561–1626) published Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine and Human, marking the beginning of his “massive plan for the reorganisation of scientific method”. Over the next twenty years he greatly expanded and reworked his ideas in De Augmentis Scientiarum, appearing first in Latin in 1623 and then in this first edition of the English translation.

This work is concerned primarily with the classification of philosophy and the sciences, wherein Bacon develops his influential view of the relation between science and theology. He distinguishes between knowledge by divine revelation and knowledge by the senses, and divides the latter into natural theology, natural philosophy, and the sciences of man.

The engraved allegorical title page (modified from its original appearance in Bacon’s Instauratio Magna of 1620) shows a ship in full sail passing from the old world into the new; the text underneath the ship reads: “Many will pass through the difficulty of knowledge”.  The two plinths on either side signify the separate spheres of natural sciences and philosophy, while the obelisks are marked as Oxford (‘Oxonium’) and Cambridge (‘Cantabrigia’) to signify the two universities. The owls at the foot of the plinths signify Athena, the Greek goddess of knowledge and wisdom. The globes at the top of the page represent the ‘visible world’ and the ‘intellectual world’, connected by their clasping hands, and the caption reads: “They are united by reason and experience”.

Donated by Elizabeth Mackenzie (LMH 1941-47, Fellow 1951-88, Vice-Principal 1981-88).

Ernest Wallis Budge (ed.), The Book of the Dead: the Papyrus of Ani (London, 1895)

The ‘Book of the Dead’ is the name given to a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts, used from around 1550 BCE until around 50 BCE. There is no single or canonical ‘Book of the Dead’ – rather, this refers a collection of texts, generally written on papyrus, which were created by many priests over a period of around a thousand years. Some of the rites included in the book were drawn from works dating to the 3^rd millennium BCE.

The texts consist of a number of spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife, with detailed instructions on how the spirit of the deceased should behave in the Land of the Gods. These were placed into the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, while some spells were separately inscribed onto the tomb walls and sarcophagi.

In 1888 Sir Ernest Wallis Budge (1857–1934), then purchasing agent for the British Museum, acquired a papyrus manuscript of the ‘Book of the Dead’, which had been illegally traded. Budge smuggled the stolen artifact back to the British Museum after evading the Egyptian police who were sent to retrieve it and several other stolen items – the manuscript remains in the British Museum to this day. Budge described the manuscript scroll as “the largest roll of papyrus I had ever seen, tied with a thick band of papyrus, and in a perfect state of preservation.” The scroll was written around 1250 BCE for Ani, Royal Scribe of Thebes, and is now known as The Papyrus of Ani, a facsimile of which is displayed here.

Saint Jerome, Biblia Sacra (Lyon, 1566)

Shown here is an edition of the Vulgate Bible by Saint Jerome, or Jerome of Stridon (c.342-7–420). Jerome was commissioned in 382 by Pope Damasus I to revise the Vetus Latina Gospels commonly used by the Roman Church at the time. Later Jerome went on to translate and revise most of the books of the Bible into Latin. The resulting text became the most commonly used edition of Bible in the Western Church for the next thousand years, and was accepted as the versio vulgate, or ‘version commonly used’. The Catholic Church affirmed the Vulgate as its official Latin Bible at the Council of Trent (1545–1563), and it is still currently used in the Latin Church.

Donated by Agnes Muriel Wilde (née Clay; LMH 1896-1900, Tutor 1901-1910).

Qur’an (17th century)

This early 17^th century Qur’an is one of the few  manuscripts held in the Library, donated by LMH’s third principal Lynda Grier. The flower-like symbols in the margins of the text mark the beginning of a new Juz’ – one of thirty subdivided parts of equal length into which the Qur’an is divided. The division of the text into Juz’ is not linked to the content and one can begin reading from anywhere in the Qur’an. However, these subdivisions are of great practical significance as they facilitate the reading or recitation of the Qur’an in its entirety over the course of one full month.

Donated by Lynda Grier (LMH Principal 1921-45).

Ralph Cudworth, The True Intellectual System of the Universe: the First Part; Wherein All the Reason and Philosophy of Atheism is Confuted and its Impossibility Demonstrated (London, 1678)

The True Intellectual System of the Universe is the most significant work of Anglican clergyman and philosopher Ralph Cudworth (1617–1688), a leading figure among the Cambridge Platonists. He conceived this work in three parts, but only the first part was ever written – about which Cudworth poignantly stated:

“There is no reason why this volume should therefore be thought imperfect and incomplete, because it hath not all the Three Things at first Designed by us: it containing all that belongeth to its own particular Title and Subject, and being in that respect no Piece, but a Whole."

In this book Cudworth seeks to counter ideas of the Enlightenment which question the existence and role of an almighty and omnipotent deity. He aims to do this by extensively laying out and explaining the arguments of atheism, only refuting them in his final chapter – this approach led many readers to confuse his views and accuse Cudworth himself of atheism. While this was not the case, Cudworth supports a number of non-orthodox views of the world in his work, including rejecting the concept of continuous heavenly intervention into events on earth, as well as arguing in favour of the origin of the universe as a gradual development of nature, in contrast to creationist beliefs.

Donated by Rosalie Littell Colie (LMH Research Fellow 1967-68).

Ernest Wallis Budge (ed.), The Book of the Dead: the Papyrus of Ani (London, 1895)

The ‘Book of the Dead’ is the name given to a collection of ancient Egyptian funerary texts, used from around 1550 BCE until around 50 BCE. There is no single or canonical ‘Book of the Dead’ – rather, this refers a collection of texts, generally written on papyrus, which were created by many priests over a period of around a thousand years. Some of the rites included in the book were drawn from works dating to the 3^rd millennium BCE.

The texts consist of a number of spells intended to assist a dead person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife, with detailed instructions on how the spirit of the deceased should behave in the Land of the Gods. These were placed into the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased, while some spells were separately inscribed onto the tomb walls and sarcophagi.

In 1888 Sir Ernest Wallis Budge (1857–1934), then purchasing agent for the British Museum, acquired a papyrus manuscript of the ‘Book of the Dead’, which had been illegally traded. Budge smuggled the stolen artifact back to the British Museum after evading the Egyptian police who were sent to retrieve it and several other stolen items – the manuscript remains in the British Museum to this day. Budge described the manuscript scroll as “the largest roll of papyrus I had ever seen, tied with a thick band of papyrus, and in a perfect state of preservation.” The scroll was written around 1250 BCE for Ani, Royal Scribe of Thebes, and is now known as The Papyrus of Ani, a facsimile of which is displayed here.

Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Enquiries into Very many Received Tenents And commonly Presumed Truths (London, 1653)

Thomas Browne’s (1605-1682) Pseudodoxia Epidemica, also known as Vulgar Errors, aimed to challenge and refute the ‘vulgar’ or common errors and superstitions of the 17^th century. The work includes evidence of Browne's adherence to the Baconian method of empirical observation of nature, and determines to obtain truth through the authority of past scholarly works, the act of reason, and empirical experience. It served as a popular science book and was a valuable source of information within 17^th century homes, paving the way for a decline in the belief in mythical creatures and common superstitions.

The Pseudodoxia Epidemica explores not only topics of general knowledge, plants, animals, biology, and geography, but also treats the topic of religion as a subject of scientific investigation. Browne seeks to clarify a number of common ‘vulgar’ preconceptions on contents of the Bible, such as the belief that men have one fewer rib than women, or that rainbows did not exist before the Great Flood. Browne here perfectly exemplifies the co-existence of scientific thought and religious faith in Early Modern Europe:

“Now by the decree of reason and Philosophy, the Rainbow hath its ground in Nature, and caused by the raies of the Sunne, falling upon a roride and opposite cloud: whereof some reflected, others refracted beget that semicircular variety we generally call the Rainbow […] look upon the Rainbow, and praise him that made it […] very beautiful is the Rainbow, it compasseth the heaven about with a glorious circle, and the hands of the most High have bended it [emphasis added]”.

Donated by Elizabeth Mackenzie (LMH 1941-47, Fellow 1951-88, Vice-Principal 1981-88).

John Ray, Three Physico-Theological Discourses (London, 1713) & William Derham, Astro-Theology : or A Demonstration of the Being and attributes of God, From a Aurvey of the Heavens (London, 1719)

William Derham (1657–1735) and John Ray’s (1627–1705) works are examples of scholarship from branches of theology which deal with and seek to make sense of God’s creation through scientific theory. ‘Physico-theology’ seeks to provide evidence for theological topics, such as the existence of God, based on reason and the discoveries of science. ‘Astro-theology’, on the other hand, concerns the theological implications of astronomy and space exploration.

Clergyman Derham was the first to coin the term ‘astro-theology’ in this work, aiming to use science to "glorify God by stressing the immensity and magnificence of God's creation”. Derham advocates a chronology of space science broken into three eras, the Ptolemaic, the Copernican, and post-Copernican. He is a supporter of the Copernican model, in opposition to instances within the Bible which state that the earth is flat and unmoving, by arguing that

“since the design of the holy Writings is not to instruct Man in Philosophical, but Divine matters, therefore it is not necessary to restrain the sense of those Texts to the strict propriety of the Words”.

In Three Physico-Theological Discourses, English naturalist John Ray uses observations of the natural world to analyse the Bible’s description of the creation of the world, the Great Flood, and the eventual destruction of the earth. The book is also an early work on geology and palaeontology, containing theories on the formation of mountains, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and observations of fossilised marine life, based on theological thought.

Donated by Elizabeth Mackenzie (LMH 1941-47, Fellow 1951-88, Vice-Principal 1981-88).

Galileo Galilei, Systema Cosmicum, or Dialogus de Systemate Mundi (London, 1663)

Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) was an Italian astronomer and physicist and is considered the father of observational astronomy and the scientific method. He studied many facets of physics, engineering, and applied technology, and he built an early form of the microscope. After building an improved telescope he observed the stars of the Milky Way, the phases of Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots.

Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism was met with opposition from within the Catholic Church, and in 1615 a Roman Inquisition concluded his opinions contradicted accepted Biblical interpretations. In 1632 Galileo defended his views in Systema Cosmicum, or Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems. He was tried by the Inquisition, found “vehemently suspect of heresy” and forced to recant, spending the rest of his life under house arrest.

The Systema Cosmicum compares the Copernican system with the traditional Ptolemaic system. In the Copernican system, the Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the Ptolemaic system, everything in the Universe circles around the Earth. The frontispiece depicts Aristotle (384 BCE–322 BCE), Claudius Ptolemy (c.85–c.168) and Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) in a fictional conversation, illustrating the three figures most influential in the history of heliocentric model of the galaxy. 

Donated by Edward Hugh Norris Wilde.

Thomas Browne, Pseudodoxia Epidemica, or Enquiries into Very many Received Tenents And commonly Presumed Truths (London, 1653)

Thomas Browne’s (1605-1682) Pseudodoxia Epidemica, also known as Vulgar Errors, aimed to challenge and refute the ‘vulgar’ or common errors and superstitions of the 17^th century. The work includes evidence of Browne's adherence to the Baconian method of empirical observation of nature, and determines to obtain truth through the authority of past scholarly works, the act of reason, and empirical experience. It served as a popular science book and was a valuable source of information within 17^th century homes, paving the way for a decline in the belief in mythical creatures and common superstitions.

The Pseudodoxia Epidemica explores not only topics of general knowledge, plants, animals, biology, and geography, but also treats the topic of religion as a subject of scientific investigation. Browne seeks to clarify a number of common ‘vulgar’ preconceptions on contents of the Bible, such as the belief that men have one fewer rib than women, or that rainbows did not exist before the Great Flood. Browne here perfectly exemplifies the co-existence of scientific thought and religious faith in Early Modern Europe:

“Now by the decree of reason and Philosophy, the Rainbow hath its ground in Nature, and caused by the raies of the Sunne, falling upon a roride and opposite cloud: whereof some reflected, others refracted beget that semicircular variety we generally call the Rainbow […] look upon the Rainbow, and praise him that made it […] very beautiful is the Rainbow, it compasseth the heaven about with a glorious circle, and the hands of the most High have bended it [emphasis added]”.

Donated by Elizabeth Mackenzie (LMH 1941-47, Fellow 1951-88, Vice-Principal 1981-88).

Wordsworth was the great-niece of the poet William Wordsworth, and herself was a prolific author of poetry, plays, novels, biographies, children’s stories and religious articles.

Religious and secular tensions in the establishment of Lady Margaret Hall and Somerville College

Lady Margaret Hall and Somerville Hall (now Somerville College) were the first two women’s colleges at the University of Oxford. Lady Margaret Hall was founded in1878 as “a Small Hall […] in Connection with the Church of England for the reception of women desirous of availing themselves of the special advantages which Oxford offers for higher Education”.  However, some liberals wished for women’s education in Oxford to take place in a more secular institution, so in 1879 they founded Somerville Hall as a place “in which no distinction will be made between students on the ground of their belonging to different religious denominations”. Initially purely residential, both halls opened their doors in 1879, with nine women at Lady Margaret Hall and twelve at Somerville receiving teaching organised by The Association for Promoting the Higher Education of Women in Oxford. Women were not permitted to sit University exams until 1884, attend lectures unchaperoned until 1914, or take degrees until 1920.

At the suggestion of Mary Augusta Ward, Somerville Hall was named after the scientist and writer Mary Somerville, clearly emphasising the distinction from the religious figures for whom other such halls and college had been named. Lady Margaret Hall, on the other hand, was named after Lady Margaret Beaufort, mother of Henry VII, a patron of scholarship and learning and an extremely influential figure during the War of the Roses, as well as a devout Christian.

Presented here are works by Mary Somerville and Mary Augusta Ward, as well as a selection of miscellaneous works by Lady Margaret Hall’s first Principal Elizabeth Wordsworth, at whose suggestion Lady Margaret Hall’s name was chosen.

Mary Somerville, On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences (London, 1837)

Mary Somerville (1780–1872) was a Scottish scientist, writer, and polymath. She studied mathematics and astronomy to great acclaim, and in 1835 she was one of two women elected as the first female Honorary Members of the Royal Astronomical Society. When she died in 1872, her obituary declared that "whatever difficulty we might experience in the middle of the nineteenth century in choosing a king of science, there could be no question whatever as to the queen of science".

On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences was Somerville’s second book – it ran to ten editions and was its publisher's most successful science book until The Origin of Species by Charles Darwin. It cemented her place within the science world and is considered one of the first popular science books. In it, she was among the first to first propose the existence of a hypothetical planet impacting the orbit of Uranus – Neptune was indeed discovered less than a decade later in 1846.

In his review of On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences, William Whewell coined the use of the word ‘scientist’ in talking of how Somerville demonstrated through her work the interconnectedness between different scientific disciplines.

Mrs Humphry Ward, Robert Elsmere, (London, 1890)

Mary Augusta Ward (née Arnold; 1851–1920), was closely involved in the negotiations surrounding the foundation of Somerville Hall and suggested naming the College after the scientist Mary Somerville.

Ward was also a best-selling novelist, and her most popular novel by far was the religious "novel with a purpose" Robert Elsmere, selling over one million copies. The novel discusses the struggles of clergyman Elsmere, who begins to doubt the doctrines of the Anglican Church after encountering the writings of German rationalists. Instead of succumbing to atheism or Roman Catholicism, however, Elsmere takes up a ‘constructive liberalism’, which stresses social work amongst the poor and uneducated. This shift in Elsmere away from the church causes conflict between him and his deeply religious wife, forming the central conflict of the novel. Ward’s book was controversially received, but nonetheless started a popular discussion on historic and essential Christianity.

Ward’s aim in founding a women’s college was what she called the ‘equalisation’ for women. However, Ward was far from holding the suffragist sympathies shared by many other members of the College at the time, and in 1909, she wrote an article in the Times explaining that she felt legal, financial, military and international problems were ones that only men could solve. She went on to found the Women’s Anti-Suffrage League and to create and edit The Anti-Suffrage Review.

Elizabeth Wordsworth, miscellaneous writings

Elizabeth Wordsworth (1840-1932) was the founding Principal of Lady Margaret Hall - a position she held for 30 years until 1909. Wordsworth went on to fund and found St Hugh’s College in 1886 as a college for poorer female undergraduates unable to afford the costs of Lady Margaret Hall. She was a strong voice for the equal education of men and women and wrote and lectured extensively on the topic, although she held fluctuating views on whether women should be awarded degrees.

 Wordsworth’s father was the Bishop of Lincoln, and her brothers were the Bishop of Salisbury and a liturgical scholar respectively; subsequently, Christian faith shaped her upbringing profoundly, and throughout her life she treasured the liturgy, devotion, and traditions of High-Church Anglicanism. It was Wordsworth’s suggestion to name Lady Margaret Hall after Lady Margaret Beaufort, whom she described as ‘a gentlewoman, a scholar, and a saint’. She was not a supporter of feminist causes, including suffrage, instead believing that education would equip women to be pious wives and mothers.

Wordsworth was the great-niece of the poet William Wordsworth, and herself was a prolific author of poetry, plays, novels, biographies, children’s stories and religious articles.